0. Interdisciplinary Research Progress in the Virtual Reality Restoration of Lost Cultural Heritage Sites

1. Introduction: The Transformative Role of Virtual Reality in Cultural Heritage Preservation

The preservation of cultural heritage faces escalating threats from environmental degradation and human-induced damage, necessitating innovative approaches beyond conventional physical conservation [6]. This pressing need highlights a critical gap in traditional methods, which often fall short in addressing the ephemeral nature of certain cultural expressions or the complete loss of historical context [4]. Virtual Reality (VR) emerges as a transformative solution in this landscape, offering unprecedented capabilities for the digital restoration, exhibition, and archival of cultural assets that are otherwise inaccessible or lost [6].

This survey, "Interdisciplinary Research Progress in the Virtual Reality Restoration of Lost Cultural Heritage Sites," explores the profound impact of VR in bridging the chasm between vanishing heritage and its enduring significance. It delves into how VR not only compensates for physical loss but also overcomes interpretive challenges, providing immersive environments that enable future generations to experience and interact with cultural heritage that might otherwise be lost forever [6].

The survey will first address "The Challenge of Lost Cultural Heritage and the Need for Virtual Restoration," examining the multifaceted nature of cultural heritage loss, from physical destruction to the erosion of contextual understanding and the disappearance of intangible practices. It will underscore why traditional preservation methods are insufficient in capturing and interpreting complex, ephemeral cultural aspects, thereby establishing the urgent demand for advanced digital solutions.

Following this, the survey will investigate "The Emergence of Virtual Reality as a Restoration Tool," tracing the evolution of VR from a novel technology to an indispensable instrument in cultural heritage preservation. This section will detail how VR's unparalleled immersive and interactive capabilities enable the "democratization of cultural heritage," fostering new forms of access and engagement [5]. It will discuss the progression from initial justifications of VR for "virtual preservation" to its current role as an experimental tool for archaeological research, simulating complex historical environments and human behaviors [4]. By highlighting the integration of diverse technical skills and the anticipation of new affordances from eXtended Reality (XR) interfaces, this section will illustrate the continuous evolution towards more sophisticated interdisciplinary methodologies for archaeological research and museum education [7]. Overall, this survey will demonstrate how VR, through its capacity for immersive storytelling and interactive reconstruction, provides a holistic approach to restoring, preserving, and interpreting lost cultural heritage sites, transcending the limitations of physical space and time [1].

1.1 The Challenge of Lost Cultural Heritage and the Need for Virtual Restoration

The pervasive threat to cultural heritage sites, exacerbated by environmental factors such as climate change, underscores an urgent need for advanced preservation methodologies [6]. Traditional preservation approaches, primarily focused on physical conservation and reconstruction, often prove inadequate in mitigating irreparable damage or addressing the ephemeral nature of certain cultural expressions. This limitation necessitates a transformative shift toward innovative solutions that can transcend the boundaries of physical presence. Virtual reality (VR) emerges as a pivotal technology in this context, offering a potent means for the digital restoration, exhibition, and archival of cultural assets that are otherwise lost or inaccessible [6].

The concept of "loss" in cultural heritage extends beyond mere physical destruction to include the decay of contextual understanding, the disappearance of intangible practices, and the fragmentation of historical narratives. For instance, understanding the psychological foundations of Palaeolithic cave art presents a significant challenge due to the fragmentary archaeological record, particularly concerning ephemeral behaviors like the emergence of visual culture [4]. Traditional methods struggle to capture and interpret these subtle, past behaviors, highlighting a critical interpretive gap. The inherent value and significance of these lost or fragmented sites lie not only in their historical or artistic merit but also in their capacity to inform cultural memory, facilitate educational outreach, and serve as foundational resources for research. Therefore, their digital restoration is crucial for ensuring continuity of knowledge and fostering a deeper appreciation of human heritage across generations.

The papers collectively emphasize that VR is not merely a compensatory tool for physical loss but a transformative solution capable of bridging interpretive challenges that traditional methods cannot overcome. By digitally recreating full-scale cultural assets, VR environments enable an immersive engagement that can compensate for the absence of physical material, allowing future generations to experience and interact with cultural heritage that might otherwise be lost [6]. This capability is particularly vital for sites under imminent threat, providing a robust archival solution for posterity.

Furthermore, VR addresses the limitations of traditional methodologies in capturing and interpreting complex, ephemeral cultural aspects. For example, in the study of Palaeolithic cave art, VR facilitates an interdisciplinary approach to understanding the psychological underpinnings of ancient visual culture, which is difficult to glean from static archaeological data alone [4]. The immersive nature of VR allows researchers and the public to experience these sites in a contextualized manner, providing insights into the human behaviors and environmental factors that shaped them. This deep immersion helps to overcome interpretive challenges by allowing for a simulated re-experience of ancient environments, thereby enriching the understanding of complex human-environment interactions that are otherwise difficult to reconstruct.

In essence, the research implicitly acknowledges that the magnitude of cultural heritage loss, whether through physical destruction or the erosion of contextual meaning, demands solutions that extend beyond conventional means. VR stands out as an advanced tool that not only preserves the tangible aspects of heritage but also provides a dynamic platform for exploring and understanding the intangible, behavioral, and contextual dimensions that are often lost. This sets a clear problem-solution trajectory where the urgency of cultural heritage preservation, coupled with the interpretive limitations of traditional approaches, necessitates the adoption of VR as a transformative, comprehensive, and accessible restoration methodology.

1.2 The Emergence of Virtual Reality as a Restoration Tool

The emergence of Virtual Reality (VR) as a significant tool in cultural heritage restoration is predicated on its capacity to address critical challenges in preservation, access, and engagement. Initial justifications for VR's utility in this domain largely centered on its potential to transcend the physical limitations of traditional heritage management. For instance, VR is presented as a method for "virtual preservation," enabling the documentation and digital recreation of cultural assets. This capability is crucial for allowing future generations to experience heritage sites even if the physical structures are lost or damaged, with the realism inherent in VR compensating for the material asset's loss [6]. Similarly, the "Wessex Archaeology" team highlights VR's ability to create fully immersive, computer-generated simulations that transport users to different times and places, enabling interaction with historical figures and replica artifacts in a seamless, realistic, and physical manner [9]. This directly addresses the challenge of making inaccessible or fragile heritage sites available for exploration without risk of further damage.

A key perceived limitation, though not explicitly detailed as such in all early conceptualizations, is the notion that VR experiences might supplement rather than entirely replace physical interactions. This perspective acknowledges VR's profound capacity for 3D visualization and fostering a "being there" sensation through immersion and interaction, while maintaining the irreplaceable value of direct, physical engagement with heritage [5]. Another implicit limitation, particularly in earlier applications, revolved around the depth of engagement beyond mere visual immersion. Erik Champion's work subsequently highlights this by emphasizing the need for "immersive literacy" and "immersively historical literacy," suggesting that simply being present in a virtual environment is insufficient; users must also develop the capacity to critically navigate, interpret, and engage with historically contextualized digital content [2]. This indicates that the initial focus on purely technical capabilities of VR evolved to include pedagogical and interpretive dimensions.

Despite these considerations, the overarching consensus underscored VR's suitability for heritage restoration due to its unparalleled immersive and interactive capabilities. VR enhances user perceptions by immersing them in virtual worlds, promoting the "democratization of cultural heritage" by offering new forms of access and preservation [5]. It allows for virtual tours of historical sites and museums, the creation of interactive exhibits, and the simulation of historical events or cultural practices, thereby enhancing visitor experience, increasing accessibility, and reducing costs associated with physical travel [3]. This transformative potential is further articulated by the idea that VR reverses the "non-democratic, one-way communication of the past," fostering two-way communication and new opportunities for emotional engagement with heritage [5].

These foundational insights into VR's capabilities laid robust groundwork for more advanced interdisciplinary applications in cultural heritage. The technology's ability to facilitate dynamic and accessible interactions for a global audience, through applications like virtual exploration of historical sites via 3D models and digital restoration of damaged artworks, signifies a profound evolution in heritage engagement beyond traditional methods [8]. For instance, Wessex Archaeology leverages expert 3D creatives for detailed 3D digital models, which are then deployed through VR, AR, and gaming experiences, illustrating a multidisciplinary approach to recreate and convey historical information accurately [9]. This integration of diverse technical skills demonstrates how VR fosters interdisciplinary collaboration.

Moreover, VR's role extends beyond mere visualization to serve as an experimental tool for archaeological research, such as simulating lighting conditions in ancient caves to test hypotheses about past human behaviors and visual culture [4]. This shows a shift from passive consumption of heritage to active, research-driven exploration. The emergence of eXtended Reality (XR) interfaces, building upon earlier VR applications, further anticipates new affordances for spatial presence, situated information immersion, and multi-user interaction, indicating a continuous evolution towards more sophisticated interdisciplinary methodologies for archaeological research and museum education [7].

In essence, VR offers "new ways to explore and understand historical sites" [8] by enabling users to "walk through 3D virtual sites, interact with replica artifacts, and encounter historical figures" [9]. This capacity for immersive storytelling, where users can even create their own narratives and interact with each other, highlights VR's transformative potential not just for preservation and access, but for fostering new forms of engagement and understanding that transcend the limitations of physical space and time [1]. This holistic approach, combining technological innovation with historical and archaeological rigor, positions VR as a central pillar in the interdisciplinary efforts to restore, preserve, and interpret lost cultural heritage sites.

2. Theoretical and Technological Foundations of VR Heritage Restoration

The digital restoration of lost cultural heritage sites through Virtual Reality (VR) and Augmented Reality (AR) is underpinned by a comprehensive framework that integrates advanced technological capabilities with interdisciplinary insights. This section delineates the core theoretical and technological foundations that enable the creation of immersive, accurate, and engaging virtual heritage experiences. It begins by exploring the foundational technologies of VR and AR, detailing their unique affordances and the essential technological components required for constructing virtual heritage environments. Subsequently, it delves into the crucial interdisciplinary collaborations that are paramount for ensuring the historical authenticity and scientific rigor of these digital reconstructions.

The first sub-section, "Foundational Technologies in VR Heritage Restoration," provides a detailed exposition of VR and AR, characterizing VR as a fully immersive, computer-generated simulation that provides an "unprecedented user experience in 3D visualization" and a profound sense of "being there" [3,5,9]. It contrasts this with AR's ability to overlay digital information onto the real world, augmenting a user's perception of their physical surroundings [9]. It outlines the essential technological components, such as 3D modeling, photogrammetry, 3D scanners, and game development software like Unity, which are crucial for creating interactive and realistic digital environments [6,8,9]. The discussion highlights how these technologies enhance user perception and experience by fostering deep engagement and providing novel avenues for exploring historical sites, even enabling the reconstruction of damaged or lost heritage [1]. Furthermore, it compares the distinct affordances of VR, particularly its capacity for complete immersion and speculative reconstruction, with AR's strength in seamlessly integrating digital information with physical sites for on-site enhancement [4,5].

The second sub-section, "Interdisciplinary Foundations and Collaboration Frameworks," emphasizes that successful VR heritage restoration necessitates a robust interdisciplinary approach. It details how collaboration between archaeological expertise and 3D creative specialists is fundamental to ensuring "archaeologically accurate" and realistic VR experiences [9]. This part of the survey also explores the broader integration of fields such as critical heritage studies, digital humanities, and game design, which contribute to creating pedagogically effective and engaging digital experiences, promoting concepts like "immersive literacy" [2]. Additionally, it discusses the significant contributions of advanced technological fields, including robotics for data collection and visual psychology for novel research insights into human cognition and artistic evolution within virtual environments [1,4]. The synergistic effects of combining historical research with technological development are underscored, leading to comprehensive and authentic virtual restorations. Finally, the section addresses challenges inherent in interdisciplinary collaboration, such as communication gaps and the need for mutual understanding, while reaffirming the indispensable nature of these foundations for advancing the field [9].

2.1 Foundational Technologies in VR Heritage Restoration

Virtual Reality (VR) and Augmented Reality (AR) represent pivotal foundational technologies in the digital restoration of lost cultural heritage, offering distinct yet complementary approaches to enhance user perception and engagement. VR, as defined by Wessex Archaeology, provides a fully immersive, computer-generated simulation, creating an experience where users feel entirely present within a virtual environment [9]. Similarly, 'Immersing in Cultural Heritage Through VR' characterizes VR technology by its use of computer-generated simulations to create immersive and interactive environments, primarily experienced through hardware such as Head-Mounted Displays (HMDs) [3]. This immersive quality is central to VR's appeal in heritage contexts, enabling an "unprecedented user experience in 3D visualization" and a profound sense of "being there" through the integration of vision and sound [5]. The two key factors contributing to this powerful sense of existence in VR are immersion and interaction [5].

In contrast, AR overlays digital information onto the real world, augmenting a user's perception of their physical surroundings rather than replacing it [9]. Both VR and AR, alongside eXtended Reality (XR) which encompasses both, are highlighted as crucial immersive technologies that are transforming interaction with art and cultural heritage [7,8]. These technologies are recognized for their potential to foster spatial presence, enable immersion in situated information, and support multi-user interaction within virtual and hybrid environments [7].

The core technologies significantly contribute to enhancing user perception and experience in heritage contexts by enabling deeper engagement and a more visceral connection to historical sites and artifacts. VR, with its ability to create fully simulated environments, allows for the reconstruction of lost or damaged heritage sites, offering visitors an opportunity to explore them as they once were, or to understand the processes of decay and restoration [1]. This capability provides an "alternative reciprocity model" where real objects and their digital representations complement each other, enriching the overall understanding [5]. AR, by superimposing digital information onto physical heritage sites, can provide contextual details, historical narratives, or reconstructed visual elements directly within the real-world view, enhancing the on-site visitor experience without removing them from the physical environment.

The creation of virtual heritage environments relies on a combination of specific technological components and methodologies. Foremost among these is 3D modeling, which forms the fundamental basis for constructing detailed digital representations of past places and events [8,9]. This process often involves the use of 3D scanners and photogrammetry to capture existing heritage assets, followed by rendering software to create realistic digital recreations [6]. The data collected through various means, including robots and sensors, further aids in creating accurate three-dimensional representations of historical sites, allowing for subsequent modifications to visualize them in their original states or analyze factors leading to their current condition [1].

Beyond static 3D models, interactive experiences are crucial for deepening user engagement. This involves integrating advanced algorithms for digital restoration and potentially AI for personalized experiences [8]. Game development software, such as Unity, is frequently employed to build these interactive virtual environments, enabling dynamic responses to user actions and fostering a sense of presence [4]. The use of HMDs, such as the HTC Vive with eye-tracking capabilities, further enhances immersion and interaction by providing intuitive navigation and a more natural experience [1,4]. The integration of spatial data into immersive applications is also emphasized as relevant in archaeology [7].

The collective role of these components is to facilitate the comprehensive digital reconstruction and accessible presentation of cultural heritage. They enable the creation of virtual versions of heritage locations, which not only serve for interpretation and education but also for preservation by providing digital records for potential reconstruction if sites are damaged [1]. The benefits extend to making heritage accessible globally, allowing individuals with a web connection or VR headset to visit famous sites remotely [1].

When comparing the specific affordances of VR and AR for heritage restoration, their distinct strengths become evident. VR's primary affordance lies in its capacity for complete immersion, offering an unparalleled ability to transport users into reconstructed past environments. This is particularly beneficial for visualizing lost or destroyed heritage sites, allowing for speculative reconstruction and the exploration of "what if" scenarios, thereby providing a powerful educational and experiential tool that transcends physical limitations. The ability to create a "being there" sensation is critical for conveying the original context and scale of heritage, which might be impossible in reality [5]. Furthermore, VR facilitates controlled environments for research, such as psychological studies on the perception of ancient art [4].

Conversely, AR's affordance in heritage restoration is its ability to seamlessly integrate digital information with the physical world. This is invaluable for enhancing existing heritage sites, providing on-site visitors with real-time, context-aware information without disrupting their direct interaction with physical artifacts or structures. AR applications can overlay historical reconstructions, narratives, or interactive elements directly onto real ruins, enriching the visitor's understanding of the site's past without requiring them to leave the physical location. This capacity for direct, context-sensitive augmentation distinguishes AR, making it ideal for interpretive overlays at active archaeological digs or historical sites where physical presence is paramount. Both technologies, however, contribute to fostering "immersive literacy" by requiring users to adapt to unique navigation and interaction requirements within their respective environments [2]. The evolution of VR technology, with advancements in resolution and interactivity, further promises to enhance these cultural heritage experiences significantly [3].

2.2 Interdisciplinary Foundations and Collaboration Frameworks

The successful restoration of lost cultural heritage sites through Virtual Reality (VR) necessitates a robust interdisciplinary approach, building upon established technological foundations. This collaborative paradigm integrates diverse fields, ensuring not only technical fidelity but also archaeological accuracy and historical authenticity in VR reconstructions. The explicit and implicit mentions across various studies underscore the critical interplay between traditionally distinct disciplines, forging a synergistic environment crucial for comprehensive and impactful VR heritage projects.

A cornerstone of this interdisciplinary collaboration is the partnership between archaeological expertise and 3D creative specialists. For instance, Wessex Archaeology emphasizes the foundational role of their in-house heritage experts in ensuring that VR experiences are "as accurate and realistic as possible" [9]. This directly illustrates how archaeological knowledge informs and validates the digital reconstructions produced by 3D artists, preventing mere visual spectacle from overshadowing historical integrity. The necessity of "archaeologically accurate" content highlights a direct output from this collaboration: the transformation of raw archaeological data and interpretations into visually compelling and historically sound virtual environments. Similarly, the implicit suggestion of collaboration between technical experts in scanning, modeling, and rendering, and heritage professionals such as curators and historians, is vital for the digital recreation and preservation of cultural assets [6]. These experts work in tandem to establish guidelines for integrating VR into traditional preservation practices, ensuring that the digital models accurately reflect the physical artifacts or sites.

Beyond the direct archaeological-creative axis, the broader field benefits significantly from the integration of critical heritage studies, digital humanities, and game design. Champion's work, for example, advocates for this expansive interdisciplinary approach, emphasizing concepts like "immersive literacy" and "immersively historical literacy" [2]. Achieving such literacy requires insights from disciplines that understand user interaction, historical interpretation, and the design principles of engaging digital experiences. The concept of "co-play" further illustrates this, implying collaboration among users themselves in the process of understanding historical contexts within a virtual environment [2]. This broader scope ensures that VR experiences are not only accurate but also pedagogically effective and engaging for a diverse audience. The Cyprus Institute, in collaboration with the Cyprus American Archaeological Research Institute and the Archaeological Research Unit of the University of Cyprus, similarly showcases this interdisciplinary convergence, focusing on "Immersion and interaction for research and archaeological data interpretation," "Immersion and interaction for training in archaeology and heritage sciences," and "Immersion and interaction for the study of difficult heritage and community engagement" [7]. These themes inherently demand cross-disciplinary expertise from archaeology, cultural heritage, and computer science.

Furthermore, the integration of advanced technological fields like robotics and visual psychology significantly augments the capabilities and insights derived from VR heritage projects. The fusion of robotics, VR, and gaming for cultural heritage preservation, as proposed by Sheffield Hallam University, introduces new avenues for data collection and resource protection [1]. Unmanned Autonomous Vehicles (UAVs) provide aerial surveys of archaeological sites, while automatic image processing assists in identifying hidden structures and safe paths for human workers, thereby enhancing the efficiency and safety of archaeological fieldwork. This technological input provides richer, more precise data for VR reconstructions, illustrating a clear synergistic effect between engineering and heritage preservation. Similarly, the interdisciplinary approach between archaeology and visual psychology in understanding Palaeolithic cave art exemplifies a novel methodological contribution [4]. By integrating psychological research methods, such as studying pareidolia, with archaeological data, researchers can generate testable insights into early artistic behaviors, demonstrating how VR experiments can bridge seemingly disparate fields to unlock deeper understanding. This collaboration transforms VR from a mere visualization tool into a platform for scientific inquiry into human cognitive and artistic evolution.

The synergistic effects of combining historical research with technological development are evident in the ability of VR to create comprehensive and accurate restorations. Historical research provides the contextual bedrock, verifying details, narratives, and the overall historical veracity of the virtual environment. Technological development, encompassing 3D scanning, photogrammetry, rendering software, and advanced robotics, provides the means to capture, process, and render this historical information into immersive digital experiences [1,6]. This combination ensures that the VR models are not only visually realistic but also historically robust, allowing users to engage with heritage sites in a manner that is both authentic and deeply informative. The success of these collaborations lies in their capacity to produce VR experiences that are simultaneously entertaining, educational, and scientifically sound.

Despite the evident successes, interdisciplinary collaborations are not without challenges. One implicit challenge lies in the communication gap between disciplines with distinct terminologies, methodologies, and priorities. Archaeologists might prioritize strict factual accuracy, while game designers might focus on user engagement and narrative flow. Reconciling these different priorities requires effective communication frameworks and a mutual understanding of each field's contributions and limitations. The consistent emphasis on accuracy and realism, as highlighted by Wessex Archaeology [9], suggests a continuous effort to balance artistic interpretation with scientific rigor. Furthermore, the integration of complex technologies, as seen with robotics, necessitates specialized training and adaptation for heritage professionals, posing a learning curve that must be managed.

In conclusion, the interdisciplinary foundations of VR cultural heritage restoration are critical to its success, transforming a purely technological endeavor into a holistic approach to preserving and interpreting the past. The collaborative frameworks range from direct partnerships between archaeologists and 3D creatives to broader integrations involving digital humanities, game design, robotics, and visual psychology. These collaborations yield synergic effects, enabling the creation of VR experiences that are archaeologically accurate, historically informed, technologically advanced, and psychologically insightful. While challenges in communication and methodological integration exist, the collective outputs—ranging from accurate digital models and engaging user experiences to novel research insights—underscore the indispensable nature of these interdisciplinary foundations in advancing the field of VR heritage restoration.

3. Methodologies and Techniques for VR Restoration

The restoration of lost cultural heritage sites through Virtual Reality (VR) is underpinned by a diverse array of methodologies and techniques that bridge historical data, digital technologies, and interactive design. This section provides a comprehensive overview of the technical processes involved, from initial data acquisition and digital reconstruction to the sophisticated integration of robotics and gaming, culminating in the creation of engaging immersive experiences.

The foundational step in VR heritage restoration involves Data Acquisition and Digital Reconstruction. This process transforms historical and archaeological evidence into detailed 3D digital models, serving as the core of immersive virtual environments [8]. Diverse data sources, including archaeological findings and historical records, are converted using techniques such as photogrammetry and 3D scanning [4,5,9]. Photogrammetry is often favored for its cost-effectiveness and ability to capture large-scale sites, while 3D scanning offers high precision for intricate details [6]. The integration of robotics further enhances data collection, especially in hazardous or inaccessible environments, by providing comprehensive spatial data [1]. Once acquired, 3D modeling software and game engines like Unity are crucial for assembling these models, applying textures, and implementing interactive elements, enabling the real-time visualization and exploration of historical sites [2,3,4,5].

Moving beyond standalone VR, the Synergistic Role of Robotics, VR, and Gaming represents an advanced methodological framework. While VR-only approaches excel at digital capture and rendering for virtual tours [5,6], the integration of gaming mechanics significantly boosts user engagement and educational outcomes. Gaming fosters "co-play" and "immersively historical literacy" through interactive narratives, allowing users to "learn through play" [2,9]. Robotics contributes physical interaction and automated data acquisition, particularly in challenging environments, bridging the gap between virtual and real-world conditions [1]. This tripartite synergy provides immersive environments, interactive elements (including avatars and time-scene reconstructions), and grounded, accurate real-world data, enabling proactive heritage management and predictive scenario simulation [1].

The effectiveness of these methodologies is further illustrated through Showcasing VR Restoration: Case Studies and Applied Methodologies. Projects like the digital recreation of the Mogao Grottoes and the Gangali Khan building complex demonstrate VR’s "carrying capacity" for historical and cultural heritage, overcoming physical access limitations and geopolitical pressures [5]. Wessex Archaeology's diverse portfolio, including the "Bronze Age Roundhouse" and "Romano-British lifestyle" experiences, showcases VR's ability to provide deep insight into archaeological findings and allow wider audience access to immersive digital versions of real archaeological sites [9]. Beyond static reconstructions, VR is increasingly applied to dynamic cultural practices like music and dance, and to reveal hidden details of historical monuments such as St. Peter's Basilica [3,8]. The transferability of core techniques like photogrammetry and 3D scanning is high across various heritage types, though specific challenges related to content interpretation and historical accuracy vary [9]. Success hinges on interdisciplinary collaboration, integrating expertise from archaeology, history, computer graphics, and VR development [4,7].

Finally, Designing and Developing Engaging Immersive Heritage Experiences is paramount for effective knowledge dissemination and public engagement. The primary goal is to create "engaging" and "informative" experiences that allow users to "interact with history in a seamless realistic and physical way" [8,9]. Strategies for user immersion include fostering a "flow" state through credible and interactive VR systems, which enhances cultural perception and memory efficiency [5]. Gaming elements are particularly effective in this regard, leveraging the human desire to learn through play and providing interactive environments with avatars and time-scene reconstructions [1]. Advancements in graphics, animation, and real-time processing, along with specific design choices like 6-Degrees of Freedom (6-DoF) movement and eye-tracking, are crucial for achieving high levels of presence and embodiment, leading to more profound engagement and learning outcomes [4,7]. This holistic approach ensures that VR restorations are not only technologically advanced but also historically rigorous, culturally meaningful, and deeply engaging for audiences.

3.1 Data Acquisition and Digital Reconstruction for VR Heritage

The creation of compelling and accurate virtual reality (VR) reconstructions of lost cultural heritage sites fundamentally relies on robust data acquisition and digital reconstruction methodologies. Common approaches observed across various studies involve the transformation of historical and archaeological data into detailed 3D digital models, which serve as the foundation for immersive virtual environments [8]. This process is critical for enabling virtual exploration, digital preservation, and comprehensive study of heritage assets [8].

Data sources for VR heritage restoration are diverse, reflecting the interdisciplinary nature of the field. Archaeological data and findings, often derived from extensive fieldwork, serve as primary sources for informing "archaeologically accurate" experiences, as emphasized by Wessex Archaeology's Studio team [9]. This implies the integration of detailed site plans, artifact analyses, and contextual information to ensure historical veracity. Similarly, historical records, including texts, drawings, and early photographs, provide crucial contextual and visual information for sites where physical remains are scarce or entirely absent. The digital conversion of these varied data sources is pivotal. For instance, the use of covering photography technology has been instrumental in creating virtual models of sites like the Mogao Grottoes in Dunhuang, allowing for interaction with cultural relics without geographical limitations [5]. Such approaches highlight the importance of digital archiving as a basis for cultural heritage inheritance and how digital protection and restoration can "reappear the glory of cultural heritage" [5].

Specific technical methods for digital conversion and 3D reconstruction commonly include photogrammetry and 3D scanning. Photogrammetry, as employed in the creation of 3D models of cave walls from El Castillo cave, involves capturing numerous overlapping photographs from various angles to generate detailed 3D models [4]. This technique is particularly effective for large-scale sites or objects with complex geometries, offering a cost-effective solution for acquiring dense point cloud data that can be converted into textured 3D meshes. The advantage of photogrammetry lies in its ability to capture intricate details and color information, which is crucial for the visual fidelity of the VR environment. However, challenges such as illumination variations, reflective surfaces, and occlusions can impact data quality and completeness, requiring careful post-processing.

Complementing photogrammetry, 3D scanners provide highly precise geometric data. Studies have utilized 3D scanners to capture data from cultural heritage sites, subsequently using rendering software to digitally recreate full-scale cultural assets in a virtual environment [6]. While 3D scanning offers superior accuracy and can capture complex geometries with high fidelity, it is often more expensive and time-consuming than photogrammetry, especially for expansive sites. The choice between photogrammetry and 3D scanning often depends on the specific requirements of the reconstruction: for instance, highly detailed architectural elements might benefit more from precise 3D scanning, while vast landscapes or complex natural formations might be better suited for photogrammetry. The integration of data collected by robots and sensors further enhances the creation of three-dimensional representations, allowing for analysis of historical sites as they initially appeared and for understanding factors contributing to their current state [1].

The suitability of these data acquisition methods is directly linked to the accuracy and detail requirements for different types of "lost cultural heritage data" [9]. For highly detailed architectural complexes like the Gangali Khan building in Iran, 3D VR technology can effectively showcase intricate architectural details, especially pertinent in regions facing geopolitical pressures [5]. In such cases, precise geometric data is paramount. For broader historical contexts or artistic elements, such as Palaeolithic cave art, the focus might shift to capturing the natural topography and color of the cave walls, where photogrammetry proves highly effective [4]. The degree of historical "lostness" also influences the approach; for entirely lost sites, historical documentation and archaeological interpretation become primary, with 3D modeling serving to hypothesize and visualize the structure. For partially lost or damaged sites, existing physical remains can be scanned and then digitally restored based on historical evidence.

Once data is acquired, 3D modeling and game engines are foundational tools for creating virtual environments [2,3,5]. These platforms, such as Unity used in the El Castillo cave reconstruction [4], facilitate the assembly of 3D models, application of textures, lighting, and implementation of interactive elements. While specific details on modeling techniques are not always exhaustively detailed, the general consensus is that these tools enable the creation of "precise replicas for study and preservation" [8]. Visualization techniques involve rendering these models in real-time within the VR environment, allowing users to virtually explore historical sites [8]. The strength of game engines lies in their ability to handle complex graphical assets and physics simulations, enabling realistic interactions and environmental effects. However, a potential weakness is the computational demand, requiring powerful hardware for high-fidelity experiences. The choice of data directly impacts the final VR reconstruction; high-quality, dense point clouds and textured models yield visually accurate and immersive experiences, while sparse or low-resolution data can lead to simplified or less convincing reconstructions.

In comparing the strengths and weaknesses of different data acquisition methods, photogrammetry stands out for its relatively low cost and accessibility, making it suitable for a wide range of heritage sites, particularly those with complex or irregular geometries that are difficult to scan directly. Its main weakness lies in its dependence on image quality and lighting conditions, which can introduce inaccuracies or gaps in the data. Conversely, 3D scanning offers high accuracy and precision, especially beneficial for detailed architectural features or smaller artifacts. However, its high cost, specialized equipment requirements, and limitations in scanning very large areas or remote locations can be significant drawbacks. For expansive or hazardous sites, integrating data from robots and sensors presents a promising avenue, as it can mitigate risks to human operators while collecting comprehensive spatial data [1]. Regardless of the method, the necessity of acquiring and integrating spatial data for immersive applications in archaeology and cultural heritage is consistently highlighted [7]. The optimal approach often involves a hybrid methodology, combining the strengths of various techniques—such as photogrammetry for overall site capture and 3D scanning for specific detailed elements—to achieve the desired balance of accuracy, cost-effectiveness, and comprehensiveness for the VR reconstruction of lost cultural heritage.

3.2 The Synergistic Role of Robotics, VR, and Gaming in Heritage Preservation

The integration of robotics, virtual reality (VR), and gaming presents a potent methodological framework for advancing cultural heritage preservation and engagement beyond the scope of VR-only applications. This tripartite synergy offers distinct advantages by combining immersive visualization, interactive engagement, and automated data acquisition and physical interaction, thereby addressing limitations inherent in standalone VR approaches [1].

In a VR-only approach, the primary focus typically lies on digital capture and rendering technologies for virtual recreation and visitation, as observed in studies concentrating solely on VR for preservation in the face of climate change threats or as a standalone digital medium [5,6]. While effective for visualization and virtual tours, these approaches often lack the interactive depth and physical interaction capabilities that the integration of gaming and robotics provides.

The inclusion of gaming mechanics significantly enhances user engagement and educational outcomes. Champion's research highlights how the integration of gaming and VR fosters "co-play" and cultivates "immersively historical literacy," creating educational and engaging historical narratives through the synergy of gaming mechanics and VR environments [2]. This goes beyond passive observation, allowing users to "learn through play" by interacting with archaeologically accurate heritage interpretations, as demonstrated by studies utilizing gaming experiences delivered via touchscreens or VR [9]. The use of game development software, such as Unity, for creating VR environments further underscores this integration, enabling the inclusion of interactive elements like virtual torches to augment the immersive experience [4]. Unlike a purely VR experience that might offer a visual tour, gaming elements can introduce challenges, narratives, and objectives, thus deepening cognitive engagement and retention of historical information.

The integration of robotics introduces a crucial dimension of physical interaction, data acquisition, and remote access that is absent in both VR-only and VR-gaming hybrid models. Robots can significantly contribute to cultural heritage preservation by assisting in the collection of data for digitized databases, thereby protecting human resources in hazardous or inaccessible environments [1]. Furthermore, robotics facilitates remote access to physical heritage sites, bridging the gap between virtual experiences and real-world conditions. For instance, robots can establish communication networks linking a physical cultural site to artifacts displayed in a museum, providing a holistic understanding that transcends purely digital representations [1].

The synergistic application of all three technologies creates a comprehensive system with distinct benefits. VR provides the immersive environment for virtual visits and reconstructions, while gaming adds interactive elements, avatars, and time-scene reconstructions, allowing for the representation of heritage sites across various historical periods [1]. The addition of robotics ensures that these virtual representations are grounded in accurate, real-world data, collected efficiently and safely. This integrated approach also offers significant potential for proactive heritage management. Serious games combined with VR can simulate challenging situations at heritage sites, aiding in public education and emergency planning by enabling the prediction of future disaster scenarios [1]. This capability represents a substantial advantage over VR-only approaches, which primarily focus on existing conditions or reconstructions without the predictive and preparatory functionalities enabled by real-time data input and scenario modeling.

However, challenges associated with this tripartite integration include the complexity of developing sophisticated robotic systems capable of nuanced interaction with delicate heritage sites, ensuring seamless data flow between robotic sensors and VR environments, and designing gaming mechanics that are both engaging and historically accurate. The computational demands for real-time processing of robotic data within a high-fidelity VR game environment can also be substantial. Furthermore, while the integration of AI is mentioned in the context of personalized user experiences and virtual tours [8], fully integrating AI with robotics, VR, and gaming for comprehensive heritage preservation is an ongoing research area. The initial investment in specialized hardware and software, as well as the expertise required for interdisciplinary development teams, can also pose significant barriers.

In comparison to VR-only approaches, which may be limited to visual and auditory immersion without significant interactive or physical data collection capabilities [5,6], the tripartite integration offers a more robust and versatile solution. While VR-only systems are excellent for broad accessibility and basic visualization, they lack the sophisticated data capture facilitated by robotics and the deep, active learning potential provided by gaming. The ability to simulate future scenarios and link virtual displays with real-world physical sites through robotic networks provides a level of depth and utility that standalone VR cannot match. This synergistic model moves beyond mere digital representation to foster comprehensive understanding, proactive preservation strategies, and highly engaging educational experiences for cultural heritage.

3.3 Showcasing VR Restoration: Case Studies and Applied Methodologies

The application of Virtual Reality (VR) in cultural heritage restoration has progressed significantly, addressing diverse objectives ranging from digital preservation to enhanced public engagement. A comparative analysis of various case studies reveals common methodologies, diverse applications, and the overarching "carrying capacity" of VR technology for historical and cultural inheritance.

One primary objective across multiple projects is the digital recreation and preservation of cultural assets. The paper on "three case studies in virtual preservation" highlights the use of 3D scanners, photogrammetry, VR, and rendering software to digitally recreate full-scale cultural assets, emphasizing that the realism achieved can effectively compensate for the loss of physical assets, particularly for digital exhibition and archival purposes [6]. Similarly, Wessex Archaeology has extensively applied VR for reconstructing historical sites and periods based on archaeological findings. Their projects include the "Bronze Age Roundhouse Virtual Reality Experience" at Bitham Park, Wiltshire, the "Romano-British lifestyle" VR experience, the "Coleshill Virtual Reality Experience" of Coleshill Manor (c. 1640), a "Virtual Reality experience Saxon homelife," and an immersive VR experience of an excavation below Bath Abbey. These initiatives aim to provide deeper insight into excavation details and allow wider audience access to immersive digital versions of real archaeological sites [9]. This focus on reconstructing specific historical contexts and structures demonstrates a clear objective of making inaccessible or lost heritage tangible again.

The types of cultural heritage sites being restored using VR are diverse, encompassing archaeological sites, historical buildings, and even intangible cultural practices. The Mogao Grottoes in Dunhuang, China, and the Gangali Khan building complex in Kerman, Iran, exemplify how VR can overcome limitations of physical access and preservation, demonstrating VR’s "carrying capacity" for historical and cultural heritage [5]. For the Mogao Grottoes, covering photography technology and VR were employed to create virtual cave models, enabling global interaction with murals and collections irrespective of location. In the Gangali Khan complex, 3D VR technology was used to display architectural details and structural principles in a multi-sensory dimension, especially critical given geopolitical pressures and war [5]. These cases underscore VR's ability to preserve and disseminate heritage under challenging circumstances, showcasing its robust carrying capacity by making otherwise inaccessible or vulnerable heritage accessible to a global audience.

Beyond static reconstructions, VR is also applied to dynamic and interpretative cultural heritage. The use of VR and Augmented Reality (AR) in revealing hidden details of historical monuments, such as St. Peter's Basilica in the Vatican, allows visitors to explore structures and legacies in detail through virtual tours and immersive art installations [8]. Furthermore, VR is increasingly used to simulate traditional cultural practices like music and dance, showcase traditional crafts, and facilitate the exploration of cultural traditions [3]. This indicates a broader understanding of "heritage" that includes living traditions, expanding the scope of VR restoration beyond physical sites to ephemeral cultural expressions.

Common patterns of success across these projects often involve the seamless integration of high-fidelity digital reconstruction with interactive engagement. The ability to create detailed 3D digital models and immersive VR environments, as seen in the Wessex Archaeology projects, allows for rich, detailed explorations that are otherwise impossible [9]. The success of these applications lies in their capacity to provide multi-sensory experiences that transcend physical boundaries and time.

The synergistic role of robotics, VR, and gaming is particularly evident in advanced applications. While no specific case study fully integrates all three, the conceptual framework for Pompeii suggests a future where robotics could monitor the site, and VR/Serious Gaming (SG) could simulate and predict future eruptions, with visitors acting as avatars and virtual guides [1]. This illustrates the potential for a holistic approach where data acquisition (robotics), immersive visualization (VR), and interactive learning/prediction (gaming/SG) combine to create powerful heritage preservation and educational tools. Similarly, the "Interactive Pasts" and "Digital Heritage" conferences, referenced by Champion, emphasize the conceptual application of VR and gaming to historical understanding and engagement, focusing on developing concepts like "immersive literacy" and "immersively historical literacy" [2]. This points towards a trend where gaming mechanics enhance user engagement and learning within VR heritage contexts.

The transferability of methodologies across different types of heritage sites is high, particularly concerning core photogrammetry, 3D scanning, and rendering techniques. The same principles applied to reconstruct a Bronze Age roundhouse can be adapted for a Roman villa or a World War II aircraft wreck, as demonstrated by Wessex Archaeology's diverse portfolio [9]. The underlying technological infrastructure for creating virtual cave models, as used for the Mogao Grottoes, can be similarly applied to other challenging environments or structures. However, specific challenges related to content interpretation, historical accuracy, and user interaction design vary significantly depending on the heritage type. For instance, creating an immersive experience of Palaeolithic cave art requires an understanding of visual psychology and archaeological hypotheses, as seen in the simulated El Castillo cave environments, where VR experiments were conducted to understand the psychological foundations of Palaeolithic art [4].

Interdisciplinary collaboration is crucial for the success of these initiatives. The El Castillo cave study, combining archaeology and visual psychology, exemplifies how diverse expertise leads to novel insights, such as the hypothesis that pareidolia influenced the placement and perceived forms of animal depictions in Palaeolithic art [4]. The discussion on "new possibilities offered by these modes of immersion for archaeological research as well as education in the space of the museum" further emphasizes the need for collaboration between archaeologists, museum educators, and technology specialists to leverage VR/XR/AR effectively for understanding historical data, finds, and scientific hypotheses [7]. The successful reconstruction of historical sites, whether architectural or archaeological, necessitates close collaboration between historians, archaeologists, computer graphics specialists, and VR developers. Historians and archaeologists provide the foundational data and contextual understanding, ensuring accuracy and authenticity, while technical experts translate this information into engaging and functional virtual environments. This integrated approach ensures that the VR experiences are not only technologically advanced but also historically rigorous and culturally meaningful.

3.4 Designing and Developing Engaging Immersive Heritage Experiences

Designing engaging and informative immersive heritage experiences necessitates a multifaceted approach that blends technological sophistication with pedagogical and psychological insights. A primary objective is to create experiences that are both "engaging" and "informative," allowing audiences to "interact with history in a seamless realistic and physical way" [9]. This is achieved through meticulously crafted 3D digital models, including environment reconstruction and character creation, by specialist 3D creatives [9]. The overall aim is to foster a deeper connection with history and art, making historical narratives more dynamic and accessible [8].

Strategies for user immersion and interaction are diverse, each contributing to a richer user experience. The concept of "immersion and interaction" is central to these designs, serving various purposes such as research, archaeological data interpretation, training in archaeology and heritage sciences, and museum education [7]. Credible and interactive VR systems are crucial as they enable users to feel present and capable of exploration, which can lead to a "flow" state that significantly enhances cultural perception and memory efficiency [5]. Interaction is conceptualized as a form of behavior design, transforming the audience from passive recipients to active participants by meeting their psychological needs [5]. This "digital-driven physical interaction" excites the experiencer's body, increasing access to cultural entities and amplifying VR's capacity for historical and cultural engagement [5]. Champion's work underscores the importance of "immersive literacy" and "immersively historical literacy," emphasizing the need to design for how users critically navigate, interpret, and engage with digital historical environments [2]. The concept of "co-play" further suggests incorporating social interaction to deepen historical understanding [2].

The integration of gaming elements into cultural heritage preservation has emerged as a particularly effective strategy for enhancing engagement. Game-based approaches leverage the inherent human desire to learn through play [9]. By combining VR with gaming technology, it is possible to create realistic representations of sites at different historical moments, often incorporating avatars that allow visitors to interact with the environment as virtual guides [1]. This approach competes with the entertainment industry by offering engaging experiences through Head-Mounted Displays (HMDs) and eye-display methods, effectively overcoming the limitations of traditional museology [1]. Users can manipulate virtual elements and navigate environments akin to playing a game, fostering interactive engagement [1].

Advancements in graphics, animation, and real-time processing are pivotal in enabling highly immersive and interactive experiences. The move towards Extended Reality (XR) interfaces, which include VR and AR, enhances spatial presence and situated information immersion [7]. For instance, the detailed digital reconstructions facilitated by immersive technology allow museums and historical sites to offer dynamic virtual tours and interactive exhibits, sometimes augmented with AI for personalized experiences [8]. Specific design choices, such as those implemented in a VR experiment to understand psychological responses to Palaeolithic cave art, highlight the technical considerations: creating immersive cave environments in Unity, simulating lighting conditions with virtual torches (controlling intensity and movement), enabling 6-Degrees of Freedom (6-DoF) movement for increased presence and embodiment, and utilizing eye-tracking to measure visual attention [4]. Such precise control over visual and interactive elements is crucial for eliciting naturalistic responses and deep engagement [4].

The impact of these design choices on user engagement and learning outcomes is profound, driven by interdisciplinary contributions. The psychological foundations of immersion are critical; when users achieve a "flow" state through credible and interactive VR systems, their cultural perception and memory efficiency are enhanced [5]. Historical accuracy, as emphasized by Wessex Archaeology, ensures that the reconstructed environments are archaeologically sound, thus maintaining the educational integrity of the experience [9]. By carefully integrating elements like naturalistic movement (e.g., 6-DoF) and sensory simulation (e.g., virtual torchlight), designers can significantly increase user presence and embodiment, leading to more profound engagement and learning [4]. While some initiatives focus primarily on digital preservation and archival [6], the emphasis in designing engaging experiences shifts towards active participation and enhanced visitor experiences, increased accessibility, and improved preservation and conservation efforts through immersive technology [3]. Future advancements in VR technology are expected to further enable more immersive and engaging experiences, continually pushing the boundaries of how cultural heritage is presented and understood [3].

4. Impact and Benefits of VR in Cultural Heritage Restoration

The application of Virtual Reality (VR) in cultural heritage restoration has profoundly reshaped the landscape of preservation, accessibility, and educational engagement.

This section provides a comprehensive overview of the transformative impact and multifaceted benefits derived from integrating VR technologies into the realm of cultural heritage. It delves into three primary areas: enhanced accessibility and global reach, the significant educational and experiential value offered by VR, and its crucial role in the preservation and documentation of heritage for future generations.

Firstly, VR fundamentally redefines accessibility to cultural heritage. It transcends geographical, temporal, and physical barriers, enabling a global audience to virtually explore historical sites and artifacts that might otherwise be inaccessible due to remote locations, environmental threats, or security concerns, such as the Mogao Grottoes or the Gangali Khan complex [5]. This technological advancement extends critical access to individuals with disabilities, offering immersive experiences that overcome physical limitations [3]. While offering "new ways to explore and understand historical sites" and fostering "immersive literacy" [2,8], challenges such as the digital divide and the high cost of VR hardware persist, potentially limiting universal access. Addressing these limitations necessitates interdisciplinary contributions, particularly in intuitive UI design, content localization, and inclusive design principles, alongside collaborations between diverse experts including historians, computer scientists, and HCI specialists [3].

Secondly, VR significantly enhances the educational and experiential value of cultural heritage. Through engaging, archaeologically accurate, and informative immersive experiences, VR enables audiences to interact with history in a "seamless, realistic, and physical way" [9]. This goes beyond passive observation, fostering a deeper, more critical understanding of the past and cultivating "immersively historical literacy" [2]. VR's capacity to convey intangible aspects of culture, including emotions, enhances users' perceptions and experiences, leading to improved cultural perception and memory efficiency, often inducing a "flow" state beneficial for historical and cultural inheritance [5]. User studies consistently affirm VR's efficacy in conveying historical narratives and fostering cultural appreciation, demonstrating enhanced visitor engagement and knowledge retention [3,6]. Maximizing this educational and experiential value critically depends on robust interdisciplinary collaboration among computer scientists, psychologists, and educators to ensure technical sophistication, psychological insight into user engagement, and optimal pedagogical design [4].

Finally, VR plays a pivotal role in the comprehensive preservation and documentation of cultural heritage. It facilitates the creation of highly detailed digital records of sites, monuments, and artifacts, serving as permanent archives to mitigate risks from physical damage or disappearance [3]. This "virtual preservation" leverages advanced digital capture technologies to meticulously recreate cultural assets, ensuring their endurance amidst environmental threats like climate change [6]. These digital recreations extend beyond mere archival, enabling rule-based restoration and display of disappearing or vanished relics, thereby protecting data and fostering "efficient and standardized digital system management" [5]. Such digital versions of heritage locations are invaluable site records for potential future reconstructions [1]. The long-term usability and accuracy of these digital archives are significantly enhanced through interdisciplinary collaboration among VR developers, cultural heritage experts, historians, archaeologists, and archivists, ensuring that digital models are technologically robust, historically accurate, and contextually rich, thereby transforming archives into dynamic resources for future research, education, and public engagement [2].

4.1 Enhanced Accessibility and Global Reach

Virtual reality (VR) technology significantly advances the democratization of access to cultural heritage, transforming how individuals engage with historical sites and artifacts globally. VR platforms transcend geographical and temporal barriers, allowing users to virtually explore heritage sites irrespective of their physical location or the site's current accessibility status [5,8]. This capability is particularly beneficial for remote sites, those endangered by environmental factors, or areas with security restrictions, such as the Mogao Grottoes or the Gangali Khan complex [5]. Moreover, VR provides new forms of access for individuals with disabilities, offering immersive experiences that might otherwise be physically prohibitive [3].

Immersive technologies open "new ways to explore and understand historical sites" by providing interactive and experiential learning environments [8]. This enables deeper understanding and engagement with cultural narratives, moving beyond passive observation to active participation. Champion's concepts of "immersive literacy" and "immersively historical literacy" underscore this paradigm shift, suggesting that developing these literacies allows a broader global audience to gain profound insights into historical contexts through "interactive pasts" [2]. This digital accessibility also serves as a crucial preservation tool, creating digital exhibitions and archives that safeguard cultural heritage, particularly for sites vulnerable to irreparable damage from climate change, ensuring their accessibility for future generations [1,6]. The "carrying capacity" of VR for historical and cultural inheritance is thus enhanced, enabling wider cultural transmission [3,5].

Despite the transformative potential of VR in democratizing heritage access, several limitations warrant critical consideration. The primary challenges include the digital divide and the significant costs associated with VR hardware. The digital divide, encompassing disparities in internet access, digital literacy, and technological infrastructure, can exclude segments of the global population from accessing VR-enabled heritage experiences. While VR allows anyone with a web connection or VR headset to visit famous sites, the prerequisite of such connectivity and specialized hardware means that communities lacking these resources remain underserved [1]. The initial investment in high-quality VR headsets and associated computing power can be substantial, rendering these technologies inaccessible to individuals or institutions with limited financial resources. This creates a potential socio-economic barrier, paradoxically limiting the very "democratization" that VR aims to achieve. Furthermore, the reliance on advanced technological skills for setup and navigation can pose a barrier for users unfamiliar with complex digital interfaces, diminishing the user experience and potentially alienating those without sufficient technical proficiency. While immersive technologies make heritage more accessible, it is important to acknowledge that the concept of VR's "carrying capacity" for historical and cultural inheritance is not explicitly mentioned or discussed in all contexts of its application, especially concerning broader public dissemination and widespread access to heritage sites [8]. This nuance is crucial, as some applications of VR, such as using it for in-depth research, may not prioritize public accessibility as a primary objective [4].

To mitigate these limitations and truly enhance accessibility, interdisciplinary contributions are indispensable. User interface (UI) design plays a crucial role in creating intuitive and user-friendly VR environments that reduce the learning curve for novices. By adopting principles of universal design, UI designers can ensure that interfaces are navigable and comprehensible for users with diverse technical abilities and cognitive styles. Content localization is another critical interdisciplinary contribution. Translating and culturally adapting VR experiences ensures relevance and engagement for a global audience, moving beyond linguistic barriers to address cultural nuances. This involves not only language translation but also contextual adaptation of narratives, symbols, and historical interpretations to resonate with diverse cultural backgrounds. Inclusive design principles, spanning from ergonomic hardware design to accessible software features, directly address the needs of individuals with disabilities, ensuring that VR experiences are perceivable, operable, understandable, and robust for everyone [3]. For instance, features like adjustable viewing heights, alternative input methods, and clear auditory cues can significantly improve accessibility. Moreover, collaborations between historians, archaeologists, computer scientists, educational specialists, and human-computer interaction (HCI) experts are essential for developing comprehensive and engaging VR experiences. Such interdisciplinary efforts ensure that the historical accuracy and cultural sensitivity of the content are maintained while leveraging cutting-edge technological advancements to create truly immersive and educational experiences. The integration of augmented reality (AR) also plays a role in enhancing accessibility by allowing users to interact with virtual reconstructions of lost buildings or monuments through personal devices, creating virtual museums that break down barriers to access [9]. By addressing these interdisciplinary aspects, the field can work towards a more equitable and universally accessible future for cultural heritage preservation and dissemination through virtual reality.

4.2 Educational and Experiential Value

The application of virtual reality (VR) in cultural heritage restoration has demonstrated significant effectiveness in educating the public about archaeology and heritage, fostering deeper engagement and understanding. Wessex Archaeology, for instance, focuses on creating "engaging, archaeologically accurate, and informative heritage immersive experiences" that allow audiences to interact with history in a "seamless, realistic, and physical way" [9]. Similarly, gaming experiences integrated with VR enable learning about history and archaeology through play, providing insights into specific historical periods and excavation details [9]. This aligns with the broader assertion that VR and interactive technologies facilitate a deeper, more critical, and engaging understanding of the past, cultivating "immersively historical literacy" [2].

Beyond mere information dissemination, VR significantly "enhances users’ perceptions and experiences" [5]. This enhancement stems from VR's capacity to convey intangible aspects of culture, including emotions and feelings, thereby expressing the "emotion behind historical relics" [5]. Users can intuitively experience exhibit information, addressing emotional needs and augmenting cultural education and communication [5]. The immersive and interactive nature of VR promotes active learning and integration into the virtual world, contributing to improved cultural perception and memory efficiency. The "flow" state induced by VR is particularly beneficial for the inheritance of history and culture, enhancing cultural perception and memory recall [5]. This is further supported by findings that VR can lead to "a deeper understanding of historical data, finds and scientific hypotheses, contributing new interpretations, insights to complex assemblages and learning experiences" [7]. The potential for "education in the space of the museum" further underscores the significant educational and experiential value of VR/XR in cultural heritage [7].

User studies consistently highlight the efficacy of VR in conveying historical narratives and fostering cultural appreciation, identifying common patterns in user engagement and knowledge retention across different VR heritage projects.

VR's ability to offer immersive and interactive engagements demonstrably enhances the overall visitor experience in cultural heritage [3] and improves learning about diverse cultures and historical periods [3]. The realism achieved through virtual preservation can effectively compensate for the loss of physical heritage assets, allowing future generations to experience otherwise inaccessible or lost cultural sites [6]. Moreover, the integration of VR with gaming can create realistic representations of historical sites across different time periods, incorporating avatars for 3D time-scene reconstructions. This enables visitors to engage with the environment as avatars and even act as virtual guides [1]. Such applications not only foster engagement but also raise awareness about potential challenging situations and aid in public education and emergency planning by simulating and predicting future disaster scenarios [1]. The concept of "co-play" further suggests that social interaction within these immersive experiences can significantly enhance learning and engagement [2].

The maximizing of educational and experiential value in VR heritage projects critically relies on robust collaboration between computer scientists, psychologists, and educators. Each discipline contributes essential, complementary insights. Computer scientists provide the technical expertise necessary for developing sophisticated VR environments, ensuring high fidelity, immersive graphics, and seamless interaction. Psychologists, on the other hand, offer crucial insights into human perception, cognition, and emotion. For instance, research demonstrates VR's potential for understanding the psychological underpinnings of ancient behaviors, such as art creation, by simulating historical conditions to elicit and measure modern participants' psychological responses like pareidolia [4]. This provides unique experiential data for understanding cognitive processes related to art, thereby enhancing knowledge acquisition beyond what archaeological evidence alone can offer [4].

Educators contribute pedagogical expertise, ensuring that VR experiences are structured to optimize learning outcomes, historical accuracy, and narrative coherence. This includes designing interactive elements that support educational objectives and developing assessment methods for knowledge retention. The integration of historical context, provided by historians and archaeologists, ensures the authenticity and scholarly rigor of the virtual reconstructions. For example, Wessex Archaeology's commitment to "engaging archaeologically accurate" experiences highlights the importance of historical expertise [9]. The synergy of these interdisciplinary inputs—pedagogical expertise for effective content delivery, psychological insights for understanding user engagement and cognitive impact, and historical context for factual accuracy—is paramount. This collaborative approach ensures that VR heritage projects are not merely technological showcases but powerful tools for deep learning, emotional connection, and comprehensive understanding of cultural heritage.

4.3 Preservation and Documentation for Future Generations

Virtual reality (VR) technology plays a pivotal role in the comprehensive preservation and documentation of cultural heritage, offering robust solutions for safeguarding historical assets against degradation and loss [3]. This is achieved primarily through the creation of highly detailed digital records of sites, monuments, and artifacts, which serve as permanent archives for future generations, mitigating risks associated with physical damage or disappearance [3]. The concept of "virtual preservation" leverages advanced digital capture technologies, such as 3D scanners and photogrammetry, to meticulously recreate cultural assets in a digital format, ensuring their endurance amidst environmental threats like climate change [6].

The utility of these digital recreations extends beyond mere archival, encompassing exhibition and educational applications. For instance, VR environments enable rule-based restoration and display of cultural relics that are otherwise disappearing or have already vanished, thereby protecting data from loss and damage [5]. Such digital preservation fosters "efficient and standardized digital system management" by establishing unified technical application standards and data formats, which streamlines the retrieval and display of integrated information resources, significantly benefiting academic research and public education [5]. Furthermore, VR expands the accessibility of cultural heritage, allowing public engagement without compromising the physical integrity of delicate or inaccessible artifacts and sites [5,8].

The importance of these digital records for academic and historical purposes cannot be overstated. VR-generated virtual versions of heritage locations serve as invaluable site records, aiding in potential reconstructions if physical sites are damaged in the future [1]. Data collected through advanced sensors and robotics facilitates the creation of detailed three-dimensional representations, which can be manipulated to visualize historical sites in their original states and analyze factors contributing to their current condition, potentially informing preventative measures elsewhere [1]. This level of detailed digital documentation, including the creation of precise replicas, directly benefits historians and restorers by providing rich datasets for study and preservation [8]. For example, the development of detailed 3D digital models of archaeological sites and historical events, even when not explicitly stated as a primary preservation goal, inherently constitutes a significant form of digital documentation and heritage preservation [9]. Similarly, in the context of Palaeolithic cave art studies, the creation of detailed 3D digital models of cave walls, even for experimental purposes, inherently preserves aspects of the physical site's topography, which can be invaluable for future research and preservation efforts [4].

Crucially, the long-term usability and accuracy of these digital archives are significantly enhanced through interdisciplinary collaboration. While the primary focus of some VR applications might be on the immersive understanding of heritage, as exemplified by Champion's work on "immersively historical literacy," the underlying digital assets are fundamental to ensuring that cultural heritage is understood and valued by future generations [2]. This enduring understanding relies on the precision and completeness of the digital representations. Therefore, the successful implementation of virtual preservation strategies necessitates close cooperation among VR developers, cultural heritage experts, historians, archaeologists, and archivists. This collaborative approach ensures that the digital models are not only technologically robust but also historically accurate and contextually rich. Such partnerships are vital for standardizing data formats, ensuring interoperability, and developing robust long-term digital storage solutions that prevent data obsolescence. By integrating diverse disciplinary perspectives, VR-based preservation efforts can capture the nuanced historical understanding embedded within cultural heritage, transforming digital archives from mere data repositories into dynamic resources for ongoing research, education, and public engagement. This interdisciplinary synergy is paramount to creating digital records that are not only technologically advanced but also holistically reflective of the historical, cultural, and artistic significance of the heritage they seek to preserve.

5. Challenges and Future Directions

The interdisciplinary field of virtual reality (VR) restoration of lost cultural heritage sites, while offering transformative potential, is simultaneously confronted by significant challenges across technical, methodological, and ethical domains. These challenges necessitate a comprehensive understanding of current limitations and a strategic vision for future advancements.

Technically, the creation of "archaeologically accurate" and "informative" immersive experiences is hindered by the complexities of achieving authentic digital representations [3,9]. This involves integrating diverse skills and technologies, such as 3D scanners and photogrammetry, which demands a substantial shift in traditional heritage practices and effective cross-disciplinary communication [6]. Computational demands for high-fidelity reconstructions, particularly for Head-Mounted Displays (HMDs) that compete with entertainment industry standards, further complicate real-time rendering and data management [1,5]. Methodologically, processing and analyzing user interaction data, especially eye-tracking data in complex VR environments, lacks standardized approaches, making comprehensive analysis laborious [4]. Data scarcity for lost heritage sites also poses a significant hurdle, requiring innovative interdisciplinary data fusion techniques. Moreover, the long-term preservation and sustainability of integrated VR systems for cultural heritage remain critical concerns, demanding robust digital preservation standards for VR heritage assets [5].

Ethical considerations are paramount, particularly regarding the accurate and respectful representation of the past [9]. The commitment to "accuracy" extends to avoiding distortion or manipulation of cultural narratives and demands careful consideration of "difficult heritage" [2,3,7]. A significant ethical challenge is "transmission bias," where popular sites may overshadow less popular but equally valuable heritage, and the potential for digital visualization to "block the Democratic dissemination of information resources" [5]. Addressing these issues requires interdisciplinary solutions, fostering community empowerment, and co-creation methodologies, drawing parallels from participatory design in other fields to ensure inclusive representation and avoid historical erasure [4].

Despite these challenges, emerging trends and opportunities in immersive technologies, particularly Extended Reality (XR) and Artificial Intelligence (AI), promise to revolutionize heritage preservation [7,8]. Robotics and AI can enhance VR for safeguarding heritage sites, offering predictive modeling for disaster scenarios and linking physical sites with museum artifacts [1]. Future directions should prioritize developing standardized workflows and user-friendly authoring tools, creating models for interdisciplinary project management and knowledge synthesis, and investigating how specific XR features can facilitate novel forms of archaeological data interpretation and hypothesis testing [4,6,7]. Furthermore, integrating robust simulation models for heritage-threatening scenarios into interactive VR experiences is crucial for proactive heritage protection [1]. These interconnected advancements, bolstered by ethical frameworks that emphasize community engagement and information democratization, aim to position VR as an integral component of heritage research, preservation, and education, ensuring both technological progress and profound cultural significance [5].

5.1 Technical and Methodological Challenges

The creation of "archaeologically accurate" and "informative" immersive experiences in virtual reality (VR) for cultural heritage restoration presents a multifaceted array of technical and methodological challenges [9]. These challenges stem predominantly from the interdisciplinary nature of the field, where the integration of diverse disciplinary requirements often leads to inherent tensions and complexities.

One primary challenge lies in achieving accurate and authentic digital representations of heritage sites [3]. This requires specialist skills, including those of 3D creatives and in-house heritage experts [9]. The process demands a substantial shift in established working methods and tools, despite the availability of technologies like 3D scanners, photogrammetry, and rendering software [6]. The effective integration of these technologies to produce realistic digital recreations remains complex, necessitating ongoing guidelines for their incorporation into traditional heritage practices [6]. Moreover, there is a constant pressure to ensure that VR experiences are respectful and sensitive to the cultural heritage being represented, avoiding distortion or manipulation solely for entertainment purposes [3]. This tension between archaeological fidelity and user engagement, or historical interpretation and real-time rendering, underscores the need for robust cross-disciplinary communication protocols and shared toolkits.

Computational demands constitute another significant hurdle in reconstructing and rendering lost heritage sites in VR. While specific technical limitations like data accuracy or real-time rendering are often implicitly acknowledged, the sheer volume of data involved in high-fidelity reconstructions presents a complex problem for sorting and storage [5]. The need for Head-Mounted Displays (HMDs) and advanced eye-display methods to compete with the entertainment industry further exacerbates these computational challenges, as they demand high levels of immersion and engagement comparable to modern gaming experiences [1]. This highlights a significant gap in critical heritage studies regarding the effective design and navigation of immersive digital worlds, as current approaches may simplify real-world affordances in VR, presenting a design challenge [2]. The rapid pace of technological change and the introduction of new paradigms for immersion with XR interfaces also mean that keeping pace with advancements and integrating them effectively remains an ongoing challenge [7].

A crucial methodological challenge arises in the processing and analysis of user interaction data, particularly eye-tracking data in complex VR environments with six degrees of freedom (6-DoF) movement [4]. The absence of standardized methods and the inherent complexity of automating data analysis due to varying viewing angles make this a laborious task [4]. For instance, manual plotting of eye movements has limitations, preventing comprehensive heatmap generation. To address this, future research should focus on developing automated pipelines for analyzing eye-tracking data in complex VR heritage scenarios, leveraging machine learning techniques. Such solutions could involve deep learning models trained on diverse datasets of user interactions within VR heritage environments to identify patterns and generate insights previously inaccessible through manual methods.

Data scarcity presents another pervasive challenge, particularly in the restoration of lost cultural heritage sites where archaeological data may be sparse or incomplete. Traditional data acquisition methods may be insufficient for detailed virtual reconstructions. To mitigate this, innovative interdisciplinary solutions are needed, such as novel data fusion techniques from disparate fields. For example, combining sparse archaeological data with historical narratives through AI-driven inference could generate plausible virtual reconstructions, even with limited primary evidence. This could involve natural language processing (NLP) to extract spatial and temporal information from historical texts and integrate it with fragmented archaeological findings.

Beyond the immediate technical and computational aspects, the long-term preservation and sustainability of integrated VR systems for cultural heritage are significant concerns [5]. As Khosrow (2020) notes, VR increases the complexity of preservation, necessitating the preservation of the original digital production sequence for contextual researchability [5]. This indicates a critical gap in research concerning the long-term digital preservation standards for VR heritage assets. Future research should prioritize developing these standards through robust interdisciplinary collaboration, involving computer scientists, archivists, heritage specialists, and legal experts to establish protocols for data formats, metadata, storage, and access that ensure the longevity and integrity of virtual heritage experiences.

Finally, the philosophical tension between digital visualization and the authentic cultural experience cannot be overlooked. While digital tools can enhance heritage protection, there is a concern that excessive digital representation might "excessively deprive the experience of the culture itself," risking "attention deprivation" and blurring the boundaries between physical and online worlds [5]. This suggests that digital tools should enhance, rather than replace, the physical presence of cultural objects, emphasizing the need for balanced approaches that leverage VR's strengths without undermining the intrinsic value of tangible heritage. Future efforts must thus focus on designing immersive experiences that foster a deeper appreciation and understanding of cultural heritage, ensuring that technological advancements serve to enrich, not diminish, the cultural load of these significant sites.

5.2 Ethical Considerations and Interpretation

The virtual reality (VR) restoration of lost cultural heritage sites inherently raises complex ethical considerations, particularly concerning the accurate and respectful representation of the past. A primary ethical imperative in this domain is ensuring "accuracy," as highlighted by the focus on creating "archaeologically accurate and informative" experiences in the work of Wessex Archaeology [9]. This commitment to precision extends beyond mere technical fidelity to encompass the responsibility of presenting heritage in an authentic and sensitive manner, avoiding distortion or manipulation of cultural narratives [3]. The challenge lies in balancing historical integrity with the immersive capabilities of VR, which can profoundly shape user perception.

Erik Champion's concepts of "immersive literacy" and "immersively historical literacy" are crucial for navigating these ethical landscapes [2]. Immersive literacy refers to the ability of users to critically evaluate and understand simulated historical experiences, preventing misinterpretations that could arise from highly engaging but potentially simplified virtual environments. This critical engagement is particularly vital when dealing with "difficult heritage," which pertains to sensitive or traumatic historical narratives that demand nuanced and respectful portrayal [2,7]. The ethical responsibility of VR content creators thus extends to developing best practices that draw upon principles such as those Champion mentions, ensuring that sensitive histories are portrayed responsibly and without inadvertently reinforcing harmful biases or historical erasures.

However, existing literature reveals varying degrees of engagement with these ethical dimensions. While some studies, like that from Wessex Archaeology, implicitly acknowledge the importance of accuracy [9], many papers primarily focus on the technical application of VR for preservation and digital recreation, often without directly addressing ethical considerations, interpretation challenges, or the complexities of "difficult heritage" [6,8]. This gap underscores the need for more comprehensive frameworks and guidelines to ensure ethical representation and interpretation of cultural heritage in virtual spaces.

One significant ethical challenge stems from the potential for "transmission bias" in digital media, where popular cultural heritage sites may receive disproportionate attention and exploration, leading to the neglect of less popular but equally valuable heritage [5]. While VR offers the potential to selectively expose and preserve less popular heritages, there is also a concern, as articulated by Povroznik (2018), that "digital visualization will block the Democratic dissemination of information resources, cut off the audience’s free imagination and ossify the imagination of cultural content" with increased immersion [5]. This highlights a fundamental ethical dilemma: how to leverage the immersive power of VR without imposing a singular, potentially limited, interpretation of cultural content, thereby restricting the audience's free imagination and democratic access to information.

To address these challenges, interdisciplinary solutions that go beyond mere ethical guidelines are essential. A critical approach involves fostering community empowerment and co-creation methodologies. The underlying causes of ethical dilemmas often stem from power imbalances in representation and historical erasure, where dominant narratives may overshadow or exclude the voices of source communities. Therefore, solutions must focus on creating ethical frameworks for interdisciplinary teams that prioritize empowering these communities through participatory methodologies.

Drawing parallels from fields such as participatory design in software engineering or community-based archaeology, practical methodologies can be developed for co-creating VR experiences with local communities or descendants. For instance, in software engineering, participatory design ensures that end-users are actively involved in the design process, leading to more relevant and user-centric products. Similarly, in community-based archaeology, local communities are engaged throughout the archaeological process, from site identification to interpretation, ensuring their perspectives and values are integrated. Applying these principles to VR restoration means involving descendant communities and local stakeholders from the initial conceptualization phase through content creation and final deployment. This collaborative approach can help mitigate the risks of misrepresentation, ensure cultural sensitivity, and foster a sense of ownership and authenticity among the communities whose heritage is being virtually restored.

Furthermore, integrating principles from participatory design in urban planning or community-based conservation can provide a robust framework for addressing ethical challenges in representing sensitive cultural heritage in VR. In urban planning, participatory approaches involve citizens in shaping their urban environments, leading to more inclusive and sustainable outcomes. In conservation, community engagement ensures that conservation efforts align with local needs and values. Translating these approaches to VR necessitates mechanisms for continuous dialogue, feedback loops, and shared decision-making with source communities. This could involve, for example, regular workshops, community review panels, or even direct training and empowerment of community members to become co-creators of the VR content. Such approaches would not only enhance the ethical integrity of VR heritage projects but also enrich the virtual experiences with authentic local knowledge and diverse interpretations, ultimately promoting information democratization and holistic engagement with cultural heritage [5]. While some studies acknowledge informed consent and data anonymization in a general research context [4], a more proactive and deeply embedded participatory framework is needed for ethical VR heritage restoration.

5.3 Emerging Trends and Opportunities

The landscape of cultural heritage preservation is undergoing a transformative shift driven by the pervasive integration of immersive technologies. Emerging trends in art and cultural heritage highlight a continuous evolution in how historical narratives are explored and understood, moving towards highly personalized user experiences and detailed digital reconstructions for virtual tours, enabled by the application of AI and immersive projections [8]. This ongoing integration signifies a new paradigm for immersion in educational and cultural settings, propelled by Extended Reality (XR) interfaces [7]. These advancements offer new affordances for spatial presence, situated information, and multi-user interaction in virtual and hybrid environments, surpassing the capabilities of current VR solutions [7]. Furthermore, the concept of "immersive literacy" and "immersively historical literacy" underscores a growing emphasis on profound user engagement and learning within these evolving digital environments, with "co-play" suggesting future research into social learning within virtual heritage contexts [2]. The successful application of VR, AR, and gaming in various heritage interpretation projects, such as Bronze Age roundhouses and Roman-British lifestyles, further demonstrates the growing opportunities for immersive heritage experiences [9].

New technologies such as robotics and AI are poised to significantly enhance VR for cultural heritage preservation. The fusion of robotics, VR, and gaming represents a modern technological frontier capable of safeguarding cultural heritage sites [1]. This integration extends to incorporating predictive modeling for disaster scenarios into VR and serious games, thereby aiding public education and emergency planning [1]. The potential for robots to establish networks linking physical heritage sites with museum artifacts also presents a promising emerging area for future development [1]. AI and machine learning are expected to drive more sophisticated VR experiences, influencing new business models and expanding the use of VR in heritage education and research [3]. These advancements, alongside the inherent "carrying capacity" of VR for historical and cultural heritage, underscore the complementary relationship between digital media and VR, facilitating efficient and standardized digital system management, and enhancing the integrity and speed of historical and cultural communication [5].

To truly unlock the potential of interdisciplinary research and collaboration, several critical areas require robust theoretical frameworks and standardized methodologies. These areas are ripe for development because they directly address current shortcomings in the practical application and comprehensive understanding of VR in heritage. Firstly, the development of standardized workflows, user-friendly authoring tools, and streamlined deployment strategies is crucial. This directly addresses the challenge of bridging the gap between cutting-edge technological advancements and the practical application needs of heritage institutions. Currently, the bespoke nature of many VR heritage projects hinders widespread adoption and scalability. Establishing guidelines for integrating VR into traditional practices will facilitate the development of standardized protocols and best practices for heritage conservation and digital recreation [6].

Secondly, the creation of models for interdisciplinary project management and knowledge synthesis is paramount to fostering genuine interdisciplinarity and co-creation [7]. This includes developing shared ontologies or collaborative platforms that enable computer scientists, historians, archaeologists, and museum curators to communicate effectively and integrate their diverse expertise. A lack of common conceptual frameworks and communication tools can impede collaborative efforts, leading to fragmented research outcomes.

Thirdly, future research should investigate how specific XR features can facilitate novel forms of archaeological data interpretation and hypothesis testing within virtual environments. This moves beyond mere visualization to support active research methodologies [7]. VR experimental approaches hold significant potential for providing a nuanced understanding of interactions in early art, necessitating larger, data-rich, and cross-culturally aware projects. This includes validating findings and investigating pareidolic effects, stylistic differences, and contextual features like acoustics, tactility, darkness, and spatial placement in art-making [4]. Integrating VR with visual psychological research methods for hypothesis testing regarding early art represents a significant step towards enabling researchers to interact with and analyze complex datasets in unprecedented ways, addressing limitations of traditional two-dimensional analysis.

Finally, the development and integration of robust simulation models for heritage-threatening scenarios into interactive VR experiences are essential to enhance disaster awareness and emergency planning protocols [1]. This addresses a critical gap in proactive heritage protection, allowing stakeholders to simulate various disaster impacts and test response strategies in a safe, immersive environment.

These four proposed research directions are not isolated ideas but interconnected components of a broader vision for interdisciplinary advancement. Standardized workflows and user-friendly tools directly support wider adoption, which in turn necessitates improved interdisciplinary project management models. The ability to conduct sophisticated archaeological data interpretation and hypothesis testing within VR environments relies on both robust technological tools and effective interdisciplinary collaboration. Integrating simulation models for disaster preparedness leverages the immersive capabilities fostered by advanced XR technologies and requires standardized approaches for implementation across diverse heritage contexts. Bridging the gap between technological advancements and the needs and capabilities of cultural heritage organizations intrinsically requires collaboration among computer scientists, museum curators, and educators. This collaboration can draw inspiration from established archival practices in librarianship or museum studies to create robust digital archiving standards for VR heritage, ensuring the long-term preservation and accessibility of these digital assets. Furthermore, developing AI-driven methods for generating historically plausible narratives from sparse data can overcome interpretative gaps and data scarcity, offering a powerful tool for researchers and the public alike to engage with reconstructed heritage sites. These directions collectively foster a future where virtual reality is not merely a visualization tool but an integral component of heritage research, preservation, and education, promoting the democratization of information access and creation and revealing the profound cultural significance of heritage artifacts [5].

6. Conclusion

This survey has systematically explored the "Interdisciplinary Research Progress in the Virtual Reality Restoration of Lost Cultural Heritage Sites," highlighting the transformative potential of Virtual Reality (VR) technology in the preservation, accessibility, and educational dissemination of global cultural heritage.

The integration of VR extends beyond conventional methods, offering a multifaceted approach to engaging with history and culture [5,8].

The Summary of Key Findings section underscored VR's capacity to significantly enhance accessibility to cultural heritage by transcending geographical and physical barriers, thereby democratizing information and fostering broader public engagement [3,5]. Furthermore, VR's educational value was emphasized, illustrating how immersive and interactive environments facilitate a deeper understanding of history and art through virtual exploration, digital restoration, and interactive learning experiences [1,8,9]. A crucial aspect discussed was VR's role in long-term preservation and conservation, enabling the creation of realistic digital twins of cultural assets, thereby safeguarding against loss and degradation [6]. The success of these contributions is intrinsically linked to robust interdisciplinary collaboration, exemplified by studies integrating archaeology, visual psychology, and computer science to gain novel insights into historical phenomena [4]. The concept of "immersive literacy" and "immersively historical literacy" was introduced, stressing the need for critical engagement with simulated historical experiences, further highlighting the importance of collaborative endeavors between humanities scholars and VR developers [2].

The Broader Implications and Outlook section extended this discussion by highlighting the transformative potential of VR for the "historical and cultural inheritance" of global heritage, emphasizing its role in democratic access and deeper historical understanding, particularly for lost or inaccessible sites [5]. The emergence of Extended Reality (XR) was presented as a future trajectory, promising more sophisticated and immersive heritage experiences and new avenues for archaeological research and museum education [7]. The convergence of robotics, VR, and gaming was identified as a critical factor in enhancing resilience and sustainability in cultural heritage preservation, potentially competing with the entertainment industry by offering advanced display methods [1]. Virtual preservation via VR was also recognized as a robust method for safeguarding heritage against threats like climate change, necessitating new guidelines for its application and integrating it into traditional heritage management practices [6]. Finally, the section reiterated the efficacy of interdisciplinary VR research for testing archaeological hypotheses and the necessity of continued collaborative efforts between technologists, archaeologists, historians, and cultural institutions to refine immersive experiences, standardize methodologies, and address ethical implications of digital reconstruction [4].

In conclusion, VR technology is a pivotal catalyst for historical and cultural inheritance in the digital era, introducing innovative approaches for development and dissemination [5]. The two-way interaction between culture and technology is paramount for effectively serving societal spiritual needs and aesthetic experiences. Through immersion and interaction, VR significantly enhances cultural perception and memory, promotes democratic access to information, and facilitates efficient digital preservation and restoration [5].

The systematic integration of interdisciplinary knowledge and methodologies is indispensable for fully harnessing VR's extensive carrying capacity for historical and cultural heritage, particularly in the context of lost sites, and demands continued research and collaboration to address ongoing challenges and explore future opportunities.

6.1 Summary of Key Findings

Virtual Reality (VR) technology has emerged as a transformative force in cultural heritage preservation, offering a multifaceted approach that extends beyond traditional methods. A primary contribution lies in its capacity to enhance accessibility to cultural heritage sites and artifacts, particularly those that are physically remote, fragile, or no longer extant [3,5,8]. VR platforms enable global audiences to experience cultural sites virtually, transcending geographical and physical barriers. This enhanced accessibility fosters a democratization of information, allowing a broader public to engage with and appreciate historical and artistic legacies [5]. The immersive and interactive nature of VR experiences significantly improves visitor engagement, moving beyond passive observation to active exploration and interaction with digital reconstructions [3].

Beyond mere access, VR's educational value is profound. It redefines how history and art are explored and understood, facilitating virtual exploration, digital restoration, and interactive learning environments [8]. For instance, Wessex Archaeology's Studio team has successfully created archaeologically accurate immersive experiences using VR, Augmented Reality (AR), and gaming, leveraging in-house heritage expertise and 3D creative specialists to produce detailed digital reconstructions. These applications not only enhance accessibility but also significantly amplify the educational impact for diverse audiences [9]. Such immersive environments allow users to virtually walk through historical monuments, interact with digitized artworks, and experience past events, providing a more tangible and memorable learning experience than conventional methods. The integration of gaming elements further enriches this educational dimension, creating engaging and interactive historical reconstructions, sometimes incorporating avatars, and even simulating future disaster scenarios for educational and emergency planning purposes [1].

Another critical contribution of VR is its role in the long-term preservation and conservation of cultural heritage. Through meticulous 3D scanning, photogrammetry, and advanced rendering software, VR facilitates the creation of highly realistic digital twins of cultural assets, effectively compensating for the potential loss or degradation of physical heritage [6]. This digital preservation not only safeguards the integrity of endangered sites and artifacts but also ensures their availability for future generations [6]. The capability to virtually restore and explore lost or damaged heritage allows for continuous study and appreciation, reinforcing the enduring legacy of cultural objects [8]. This approach moves beyond mere archiving; it actively recreates and animates historical contexts, allowing for dynamic engagement with the past.

The successful realization of these contributions—enhanced accessibility, profound educational value, and robust long-term preservation—is intrinsically linked to the benefits of interdisciplinary collaboration. The development of sophisticated VR applications for cultural heritage requires a seamless integration of diverse expertises, including archaeology, art history, computer science, visual psychology, and design. For example, a pioneering interdisciplinary VR methodology combining archaeology and visual psychology was successfully piloted to investigate the role of pareidolia in Palaeolithic cave art. This study demonstrated that modern participants, under simulated cave conditions and lighting, exhibited pareidolic responses to natural cave wall features, with their visual attention and perceived animal forms corresponding to areas utilized by Palaeolithic artists. This provides preliminary support for the hypothesis that pareidolia influenced the form and placement of art in El Castillo cave, underscoring the critical insights gained through interdisciplinary approaches [4].

Furthermore, the need for new literacies, specifically "immersive literacy" and "immersively historical literacy," as highlighted by Erik Champion, emphasizes the importance of a deeper critical engagement with digital cultural heritage [2]. This moves beyond mere technical proficiency, requiring a nuanced understanding of how to interpret and critically evaluate simulated historical experiences, a skill best fostered through collaboration between humanities scholars and VR developers. The potential of "co-play" in enhancing this understanding further underscores the collaborative nature of this field [2].

In conclusion, VR technology is not merely a tool but a crucial catalyst for historical and cultural inheritance in the digital era, introducing innovative approaches for development and dissemination [5]. The two-way interaction between culture and technology, with each supporting the other, is paramount to serving societal spiritual needs and aesthetic experiences effectively. Through immersion and interaction, VR significantly enhances cultural perception and memory, promotes democratic access to information, and facilitates efficient digital preservation and restoration [5]. The synthesis of immersive technology and art is profoundly redefining interaction with cultural heritage, creating unprecedented opportunities for conservation, education, and appreciation [8]. The systematic integration of interdisciplinary knowledge and methodologies is indispensable for fully harnessing VR's extensive carrying capacity for historical and cultural heritage.

6.2 Broader Implications and Outlook

Virtual Reality (VR) technology presents a profound and transformative potential for the "historical and cultural inheritance" of global heritage, extending far beyond conventional preservation methods [5]. As a powerful tool for modern cultural heritage preservation and dissemination, VR fosters democratic access and facilitates a deeper understanding of history and culture, particularly for sites that are physically lost or inaccessible [5]. This capability ensures the continued relevance and accessibility of cultural heritage by integrating digital archiving and VR-based restoration, thereby complementing and promoting cultural inheritance in the digital age [5].

The emergence of Extended Reality (XR) and its advanced capabilities signals a future trajectory towards more sophisticated and immersive heritage experiences, opening new possibilities for archaeological research and educational initiatives within museum spaces [7]. Wessex Archaeology's practical applications of VR, Augmented Reality (AR), and gaming exemplify how heritage organizations can leverage immersive technologies to reinterpret and present historical sites and artifacts, significantly broadening public engagement with archaeology and history [9]. This approach marks a significant shift in how cultural heritage can be accessed, understood, and preserved through digital means, necessitating the development of specialized literacies for immersive environments, with broad implications for education, public engagement, and the critical interpretation of history [2].

The integration of robotics, VR, and gaming introduces a new dimension to cultural heritage preservation, enhancing resilience and sustainability in a dynamic global context [1]. This convergence has the potential to overcome the limitations of traditional museology and even compete with the entertainment industry by offering advanced VR and display methods [1]. Immersive technologies are fundamentally transforming interactions with art and cultural heritage, creating more dynamic and accessible experiences for a global audience, with significant positive implications for conservation, education, and appreciation of art [8].

Furthermore, virtual preservation using VR offers a robust method for safeguarding cultural heritage against threats such as climate change, enabling its digital exhibition and archival for future generations [6]. This suggests a future where VR becomes an increasingly integrated component of traditional heritage management practices, necessitating the development of new guidelines for its application [6]. The continuous evolution of VR technology is poised to profoundly impact our interaction with cultural heritage, with applications extending into various other domains [3].

Interdisciplinary VR research demonstrates significant efficacy as a tool for testing hypotheses in archaeology that are otherwise challenging to address using traditional methods alone, offering deeper insights into early human visual culture and behavior [4]. This methodological approach holds immense promise for future research into the evolution of human visual culture, though it requires larger, more comprehensive studies to address current limitations and explore broader applicability [4].

In conclusion, the transformative potential of VR for preserving and re-experiencing our global cultural heritage, especially for physically lost sites, is undeniable. The integration of technology and humanities, with a focus on user experience and spiritual needs, represents a forward-looking vision for the field [5]. The continued evolution and importance of interdisciplinary research are paramount in this rapidly developing domain. Future endeavors should focus on refining immersive experiences, developing standardized methodologies for virtual preservation, and exploring the ethical implications of digital reconstruction. By fostering collaboration between technologists, archaeologists, historians, and cultural institutions, the field can further unlock the full capacity of VR to ensure the enduring legacy and accessibility of our shared past.

References

[1] Robotics and Virtual Reality Gaming for Cultural Heritage Preservation.pdf - Sheffield Hallam University Research Archive https://shura.shu.ac.uk/24204/1/Robotics%20and%20Virtual%20Reality%20Gaming%20for%20Cultural%20Heritage%20Preservation.pdf

[2] virtual heritage | Erik Champion https://erikchampion.wordpress.com/category/virtual-heritage/

[3] Immersing in Cultural Heritage through VR - Number Analytics https://www.numberanalytics.com/blog/cultural-heritage-in-virtual-reality

[4] The deep past in the virtual present: developing an interdisciplinary approach towards understanding the psychological foundations of palaeolithic cave art - PMC - PubMed Central https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10624876/

[5] Exploring the Digital Age: The Carrying Capacity of Virtual Reality Technology for Historical and Cultural Heritage - Atlantis Press https://www.atlantis-press.com/article/125966234.pdf

[6] Three case studies in virtual preservation. Applying virtual reality to Cultural Heritage - DOAJ https://doaj.org/article/f71425de1e39426fa6f9533131b5b9d0

[7] Session 1: Immersive Technologies in Archaeology and Cultural Heritage - ICAS-EMME https://icasemme.cyi.ac.cy/sessions/session-1

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